The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri Inferno (Canto XXVII-XXXIV)

     In opening Canto XXVII the reader learns that as Dante and Virgil leave Ulysses they come across another comrade of Dante's. This soul recognizes Dante's accent and asks about the state of the Romagnoles. Dante is saddened to deliver the news that this region still suffers under tyranny; however it has not been dragged through war. Dante asks for the identity of the soul and only after the sinner reasons that Dante will never be able to return to earth, does he given in to the request. The living voyager learns of this man, Guido da Montefeltro's, life and how through deceit he believed his sins to be absolved prior to creating them. When faced with the underworld he was at first taken by St. Francis but in turn a demon came to absolve his actions. The demon reasoned with logic that a man can not be absolved of a sin he has yet to commit, thus Guido was thrown into the flame he inhabits. Dante and Virgil then continue on to the ninth pouch.

http://writingcompany.blogs.com/this_isnt_writing_its_typ/
2006/02/should_we_censo.html

     The narrator is befuddled on how to fully explain the gruesome acts that he witnesses in this abyss. He rattles off many different wars that came no where close to the wounds that he observed. Mohammed notices Dante gawking at his wounds and explains how this pouch works. The sinners walk in a circle, at the beginning of the processional they are wounded by a demon with a sword. By the time they walk around the circle their wounds have healed thus forcing them to constantly feel the freshness of a new injury. This pouch is reserved for the Sowers of Scandal and Schism. Their punishment continual splits them open thus relating to their actions on earth. The sinners of this pouch soon learn that Dante will re-surface to earth and many of them ask that he relay messages to their friends and families. In the end Dante is amazed at the sight of a headless man who walks around carrying his lost body part. He identifies this man to be Bertran de Born. The sinner is forced to carry his severed head because he severed the ties between a father and son on earth. In turn he is forced to use his torment as a visual tool for his sin.
     Dante continues to gape at the sinners in this pouch. Virgil tries to push the living soul on toward the next section but Dante's curiosity turns his mind back to the ninth pouch. He tells Virgil that he believed that his own ancestor resided in the area and worries about the sinners soul being avenged. Virgil acknowledges these sentiments and tells Dante that because he was so focused on other sinners he missed his opportunity to talk with the ancestor. The guide pushes Dante onward because in order to arrive at their destination they must continue.
     The two reach the tenth pouch of the eighth circle that is reserved for Falsifiers. It is separated into four section. The first houses Falsifiers of Metals, also known as Alchemist. Their bodies are covered in scabs that itch so immensely that the souls are constantly scratching at their skin. Dante and Virgil meet some sinners who consider themselves Italian and in order to learn their stories Dante promises to spread their names when he returns to the natural world. The two souls turn out to be Griffolino and Capocchio. They retell their stories to Dante and hope they can be used as cautionary tales. Before the narrator continues he tells tales that show the gruesome nature of humans. He uses these stories as a way to try and relate to the monstrosities that he has viewed but in turn comes short in trying to match what he has witnessed in Hell.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrrha

     Dante travels on to the second section of the tenth pouch there he witnesses Gianni Schicchi and Myrrha. This section is reserved for Counterfeiters of Other Persons. Myrrha is known for lusting after her own father. She even went to the extent of falsely taking on another persona in order to fulfill her lustful wants, therefore, she became damned to this region of Hell. Sichicchi also disguised himself as Buoso Donati in order to "...gain the lady of the herd..." (XXX,43". Dante then meets Master Adam who suffers from thirst. He is considered to be in the third section of this pouch, being reserved for Counterfeiters of Coins. While on earth Adam made counterfeited money. After being damned for Hell he suffers by desiring a basic necessity in life. Adam then introduces the inhabitants of the fourth section in this pouch. Potiphar's wife and Sinon the Greek residing in the section reserved for Falsifiers of Words, Liars. After Adam gives details about these inhabitants Sinon takes in upon himself to quarrel with the man. Dante watches the bickering with a child's amusement. Eventually Virgil reprimands this kind of behavior.

http://danteworlds.laits.utexas.edu/gallery12.html

     As the two move onward Dante finds it more and more difficult to see what is around him. In the distance he believes to observe towers. Virgil helps to clear his vision through stating that these figures were not towers but giants. With these words spoken Dante's eyes are opened and he takes in the colossal forms that stand before him. These giants stand between the eighth and ninth circle. Their heads protrude out of the pit that differentiates between the two sections. Their feet stand firmly in the base of the pit and in turn are fully in the ninth circle. Virgil and Dante first come across the giant, Nimrod. His gibberish makes Dante speechless and Virgil is forced to explain Nimrod's connection to the Tower of Babel in order to clear up the confusion. The two continue around the pit and come across Ephialtes. After their encounter with this giant Dante asks to see Briareus but is suede by Virgil against this meeting. They continue on and stop to talk with Antaeus, who agrees to place them in the ninth circle. In order to gain this transportation Virgil uses Dante's reputation of returning to earth as a bride in order to gain access. This continued use of Dante's ability to clear the name of those he meets is constantly used throughout the piece as a literary tool. The giant places them in the ninth circle and quickly returns to an upright state.
     Dante tries to describe the unbelievable sites that he witnessed in this circle, but finds himself at a loss for words. He tells the reader that he will try his best to explain the facts of this marvelous spectacle. In the first ring of the ninth circle he is warned to watch his step so as to not step on one of the souls. This section of the ninth ring is claimed by those who were Traitors to their kin. It has been named Caina, thus referencing Cain and Abel in the book of Genesis. As he looks around he sees the Cocytus which is frozen over and only allows the heads of those damned for this section to be above the surface. What makes this lake so special is that the water is so clear that it freezes to look like glass. Dante notices the spectacle of two heads so closely set together that their hair has begun to intertwine. He is unable to hide his gawking and in turn learns from one of the heads that on the earth these men were twins. As Dante continues walking he ends up kicking Bocca degli Abati in the face. Dante recognizes the soul even though he refuses to give away his name. Abati was a well-known traitor to Florence and only through the words of another soul does Dante cement his theory. Virgil and Dante leave the traitor behind and come upon another disturbing sight. Two heads were frozen together in one hole. One gnawed on the nape of the other's neck like a piece of bread. Dante ask the sinner who dines about his torment and states if:

"...we can agree

that if your quarrel with him is justified,

then knowing who you are and what's his sin,

I shall repay you yet on earth above,

if that with which I speak does not dry up" (XXXII, 135-139).

     Dante learns that the man is Count Ugolino. He relates his story back to Dante where he describes the horrible events that were forced upon him in the community of Pisa. After being imprisoned by Archbishop Ruggieri, the man whom he eats upon, Ugolino was forced to consume the flesh of his sons in order to try and survive. Dante then laments about the city of Pisa and how their sins have gone unpunished. The travelers then continue to the the third ring of the ninth circle, known for Traitors to their Guest. In this section the sinners lay in the frozen lake with all but their faces covered by ice. Their tears become ice crystals that freeze their eyes shut. Dante comes across Fra Albergio who laments about his predicament. His soul became so treacherous that it was damned for Hell before he actually passed on. His body still remains alive on earth but is inhabited by a demon. Dante questions this phenomena, especially after Albergio states that Branca Doria has received the same fate. The narrator remembers seeing Doria eat, sleep, and act like a normal human thus giving him more confusion.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)

     Virgil and Dante continue their travels to the last section of Hell the fourth ring of the ninth circle. This section is claimed for those who were Traitors against their Benefactors. It is called Judecca. As the two men travel towards the end of their journey Dante watches the ice underfoot that house the sinners of this section. He describes their torture by being fully emerged in the ice and forced into obscure positions. Finally, Dante comes upon the most infamous character of all, Lucifer. He describes in detail this menacing creature and explains how each of his three heads hold in their mouths one of the three individuals who are forced to suffer the most. These men include Judas Iscariot, Brutus, and Cassius. Lucifer's wings continual movements create the wind that freezes the water of the Cocytus. After Virgil explains the identity of the three men he states, "...it is time / for us to leave; we have seen everything" (XXXIV, 68-69). Dante takes a hold of Virgil's neck and the two use Lucifer as a ladder to climb to the place in which Lucifer first fell when coming from Heaven. Dante becomes confused by the trek and Virgil is forced to explain how they were able to leave the abyss. They travel on foot for some time and final are able to make it to the surface. The narrator ends the poem by mentioning the beauty of the stars.

Note from the Blogger: I found it interesting how Dante uses well-known people from history throughout his work. This intertextuality helps the piece become more relatable and shows the large extent of Dante's abilities. Overall, this piece was quite intimidating but by looking at the story as a whole a reader is able to understand the magnificence of the literature.

The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri Inferno (Canto XIX-XXVI)

http://alenthony.wordpress.com/2009/07/19/simonists-racists-and-cannibals/

     Canto XIX opens with Dante explaining the atrocities of those in the third pouch. These men are Simonists. They bought their religious right in order to have power in the church. Dante carries a negative, demeaning tone when discussing their sins. These men lay buried in hot sand that only allows their feet and legs to protrude out of the surface. They wither in pain as flames dance across their feet. Dante notices that one sinner is burdened by redder flames that torture the soul to an extreme. Virgil recommends getting closer to the soul in order to answer Dante's question. Once by the sinner Dante begins to speak with the man. The soul mistakes Dante for Boniface who is to take his place when he reaches the underworld. Virgil urges Dante to the correct the confusion and he learns the identity of the man as being Pope Nicholas III. The Pope laments about how those on earth are worse sinners. Dante dives into a tirade about how those who commit simony deserve the fate they choose. Virgil approves of this stance and the two journey towards the fourth pouch.
     This pouch is reserved for Diviners, Astrologers, and Magicians. Their torture forces them to walk in a slow processional that reminds Dante of the church. The heads of these souls are turned around because in their lifetime they were constantly trying to look forward into the future. At the beginning of Canto XX Dante uses a unique writing technique when he address the audience directly. "May God so let you, reader, gather fruit / from what you read..." (XX, 19-20). This torture over takes his emotions and he is reprimanded by Virgil for showing pity towards these sinners. Virgil gives details about many of the different souls he recognizes. In particular he tells the story of Manto. This sorceress was the founder of his hometown and he sees it as his duty to tell Dante the true origin of the city. After finishing his story Virgil tells about other sinners he identifies. The duo then journeys forth and reaches the fifth pouch.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacoda

     Dante notices this section to be rather dark. A pit full of pitch sits under a bridge. As the souls surface demons armed with prongs poke at them. The content of the pit reminds Dante of the Venetians when they fix their boats in the winter season. He is alarmed by Virgil's shout as a demon flies in with a new resident. Virgil then has Dante hide behind a crag in order to negotiate with the demons. At first the overseers try to bully Virgil but, he uses his divine fate to quiet the masses. The head demon, Malacoda meaning "Evil-Tail", gives ten demon escorts to the travelers because the "bridge is out". He recommends that they go to the next ridge in order to pass through this pouch. Dante is nervous about traveling with the demons but Virgil calms his nerves. Before the group leaves Dante eyes the pit and tries to make conversation with the sinners that surface. The souls have learned to avoid being skewered  by making quick appearances through the surface and then diving back in. Finally one of the men is pulled up on shore so that Dante is able to speak with the him. He learns that this pouch is meant for those who took brides. Dante then asks the soul if any Italians reside in the residue. The demons are astonished to learn that these souls have found ways to avoid their torture. The monsters then attempt to grab the beached soul before he can return to the pit. The man escapes the demon's clutches and is able to cause two demons to fall into the sticky tar of the pit. With all the excitement of their comrades trying to save the beast Virgil and Dante take their leave.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Stradano_Inferno_Canto_23.jpg

     Dante worries that because he caused so much distress to the demons that they will come after them. Virgil agrees with this line of thinking and moments after the guide explains his plan for escape the demons come into sight. Virgil grabs Dante and runs with him like a mother guards her child. He slides down an embankment and the demons are forced to watch them escape outside of the fifth pouches boundaries. The two enter into the sixth pouch and witness the procession of well-dressed sinners. After closer examination Dante notices that the clothing is lined with lead even though on the outside it looks dazzling. The weight of the cloth forces the souls to walk in a very methodical, slow manner. While Dante and Virgil talk one of the sinners recognizes Dante's Tuscan accent. The narrator learns that this pouch is reserved for hypocrites. He also notices one man who lays in a crucified position on the ground. This man is forced to endure the weight of those who walk in the processional as they travel over him. Dante learns the identity of the man to be Caiphus. Dante's acquaintances explain his torture through stating "'That one impaled...counseled the Pharisees that it was prudent / to let one man -- and not one nation suffer" (XXIII,115-116). Virgil watches this take place and asks Dante's native brothers how they can reach the next section of Hell. He is dismayed to learn that Malacoda deceived the travelers and that the their is no connecting ridge. The souls are able to relay an existing passage and see the men on their way.
     Their trek to the seventh pouch is treacherous. Dante requires Virgil's encouraging words in order to make the trip. After arriving at the pouch Dante is disturbed by the villainous serpents who resided in the embankment. The souls that live here are naked and are bound by the serpents. The souls are damned for this pouch because they are known as being thieves. These creatures take pleasure in torturing their victims. Dante is amazed to witness a soul being bite by a serpent. He then immediately burst into flames only to be reincarnated after his ashes touch the ground. Virgil asks the unfortunate soul about his identity. To Dante's surprise he personally knew the sinner when he lived on the earth. Vanni Fucci, recognizes Dante and is ashamed to be seen in his miserable state. He admits to stealing the ornaments from the sacristy. In order to help his self-esteem the soul prophesies the defeat of Dante's political party back in Florence.
     The opening of Canto XXV relates back to the previous Canto. Vanni Fucci has gone from shame to outrage and Dante is able to describe the scene in the following passage:

"When he had finished with his words, the thief

raised high his fists with both figs cocked and cried:

'Take that, o God; I square them off for you!'

From that time on, those serpents were my friends,

for one of them coiled then around his neck,

as if to say, 'I'll have you speak no more';

another wound about his arms and bound him

again and wrapped itself in front so firmly,

he could not even make them budge an inch" (XXV, 1-9).

     After Dante's fellow countryman is taken away the travelers are able to view another phenomenon. Three sinners are brought into the pouch with two serpents alongside. One of the serpents coils himself around a sinner and the two begin to morph together to form one creature. While this takes place the other serpent bites the belly of one of the other sinners. Dante describes these events with great detail and is mesmerized that in the end he does not fully trust his own account of the occurrence.
     As the two beginning to journey forth to the eighth pouch Dante relishes in the idea that Florence is well represented in Hell. The men travel on and arrive at the eighth pouch, reserved for Fraudulent Counselors. Flames can be seen all around and Virgil explains to his companion that each hold the soul of a sinner. Dante notices one flame that burns taller then the others and is told that it holds both Ulysses and Diomedes. The living soul wishes to talk with these men but Virgil cautions the traveler because of his Tuscan accent. He in turn recommends that he become the intermediary and talks to the flame directly. Dante agrees and through Virgil he hears Ulysses story.

The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri Inferno (Canto XI-XVIII)

     Canto XI opens with Dante and Virgil standing on the cusp of the seventh circle. The stench is so horrendous that Virgil proposes they rest for awhile so their senses can get accustomed to the smell. In order to not waste the time Virgil explains the rest of the circles and who they hold. He starts by clarifying that fraud is seen as one of the ultimate sins because it breaks the trust of man and God. People who perform fraudulent acts are doomed for a lower Hell then those with violent tendencies. The eighth and ninth circles are reserved for those who are frauds.

"Of every malice that earns hate in Heaven,

injustice is the end; and each such end

by force or fraud brings harm to other men.

However, fraud is man's peculiar vice;

God finds it more displeasing -- and therefore,

the fraudulent are lower, suffering more" (XI, 22-27).

Virgil then describes the seventh circle of Hell. It is reserved for those who are violent. It is subdivided into three categories, violence against God, oneself, and ones neighbor. Dante understand Virgil's clarification of these different groups but asks why the people that were in the first through sixth circles are not doomed for the same fate. Virgil goes in depth about incontinence, malice, and mad brutality. These three ideas help Dante to further his understanding of Hell. Dante then asks about how "...usury offends / divine goodness..."(XI,95-96). The poet goes into detail about how the use of usury goes against what is natural, especially the ability to love.

http://www.worldofdante.org/pop_up_query.php?dbid=I019&show=more

     Virgil then pushes them on towards the seventh circle. As they enter the seventh circle, that is guarded by the Minotaur, they are met with anger. The beast refuses to let them pass but through his crazed fit Virgil sneaks Dante past the being. As the duo descends into the valley Virgil comments that the rocks they travel on had not yet fallen when he first journeyed into this section of Hell. They reach a "...stream of blood, where those / who injure others violently, boil" (XII, 47-48). Centaurs guard the stream and shoot arrows at anyone in the streams who rises too far above the borderline. The Centaurs are startled that a living soul has managed to descend into Hell and almost shoot Dante down. Virgil quickly steps in and uses his divine reasoning to explain the situation. In order to quicken their pace, Virgil asks for a Centaur's help. Dante is placed upon one the beast and the trio travels on. During their journey the Centaur, Nessus, names some of the notable souls who reside in this circle. Some examples being Alexander, Dionysius, and Atilla the Hun. Nessus takes the men across the bank and then returns to his leader.

http://www.stpeterslist.com/8214/forest-of-suicides-
6-comments-on-dantes-punishment-for-the-self-violent/

     Dante and Virgil continue on their course and walk into a forest filled with blackened, gnarled trees. Dante can hear the cries of the souls who inhabit this second ring in the seventh circle but can not see them. Virgil advises that Dante break off a branch in order to calm the voices. In reality the tree, an advisor to Frederick when he resided on the earth, yells out in pain after Dante breaks a branch from him, startling Dante. Blood trickles down the bark and in order to make amends with the tree Virgil recommends that Dante hear the adviser's story in order to clear the man's name. Dante learns that this man was loyal to his master until his death, but was shamed after his good name was tarnished by a harlot. The narrator learns that those who commit suicide end up in the second ring and start out growing as little saplings. Harpies, half-bird half-woman creatures, come and pick at the saplings as they grow thus making them black and gnarled. Every change in the trees figure pains the soul as if it were their own body. The men are interrupted by a loud roar as two men run in being chased by dogs. One tries to hide in a bushes but is torn to pieces. Dante and Virgil walk over to the bush and learn of Florentine's fate. Overtaken with emotion Dante gathers up the bushes boughs and hands them back to the owner.
     The duo continues into the Third Ring of the seventh circle. This section is reserved for those who were violent against God. It is further divided into three zones that can help categorize the extent of their blasphemy. All of the zones have fire rain. This rain heats the sand thus ensuring torment all around. Dante notices that the torture does not seem to effect a giant who lies down. The giant, Capaneus, states, "That which I was in life, I am in death" (XIV, 51). The duo proceeds on to another another red river and Virgil explains how these rivers were formed. At the island of Crete sits a damaged statue of an Old Man. Through the tears that are exuded from this statue the waters make up the Acheron, the Styx, the Phlegethon, and continue to follow down into the deepest circle to form the Cocytus. Virgil then gives details as to the layout of these different circles and then states that they must travel out of the forest. The two men travel out of the woods so far that Dante after looking back can not make out where the forest ends.
     They enter the second zone, the Sodomites, of the seventh circle's third ring. In this zone the people are required to walk in the fire rain. As they travel into this zone Dante is recognized by Brunetto Latino. Latino asks Dante what brings him to these depths of hell and who is his guide. Dante responds:

"'There, in the sunlit life above,' I answered,

'before my years were full, I went astray

within a valley. Only yesterday

at dawn I turned my back upon it -- but

when I was newly lost, he here appeared,

to guide me home again along this path'" (XV, 49-54).

Latino predicts that Dante will be greatly rewarded on earth. The narrator states that he will let Fortune take its course and not rely on the word of man. Virgil is pleased with his answer and Latino continues to talk about men from Dante's life but he is rushed and forced to part. Thus Dante and Virgil continue with their journey. They come across three of Dante's comrades who are not identifiable by their physical features because of the torment they have received. Dante learns who they are after they introduce themselves. After learning of Dante's origins, the countryman ask about the state of their beloved city. Dante informs them that it has gone from courtesy and valor to excess and arrogance. The three men leave them after hearing the saddening news.

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     Virgil pushes Dante along to continue. After traveling to a ravine Virgil asks Dante for the cord that was around his waist. The poet throws the belt into the ravine and out climbs a beast. The beast, Geryon, helps the men to descend into the third zone of the seventh circle's third ring. This area houses those guilty of violence towards nature and art. After entering this zone Virgil tells Dante that he can explore while the poet tries to negotiate with Geryon. Dante comes across souls seated in the fire rain with purses wrapped around their necks. Each purse bears the soul's family emblem and the narrator tries to speak with these people; however he does not get any verbal response in return. He moves back to his guide who has gained travel on the back of Geryon to the eight circle. After flying to this circle and being dropped off, Geryon vanishes.
     The eighth circle is made up of ten pouches. The first houses pimps and seducers. Their punishment encompasses running from one side of the pouch to the other, while on either side demons wait to strike these souls with whips. Dante recognizes Venedico Caccianemico an Italian man who sold his sister. The men talk and Dante learns about this particular pouch. Dante and his guide continue towards the next pouch. Before reaching the pouch Dante also recognizes Jason who was doomed for abandoning Medea in the first pouch. The two final reach the second pouch which has a foul odor attached. The characters learn that this area immerses its souls with excrement. This section is reserved for Flatterers. Dante recognizes one of the souls there as Alessio Interminei of Lucca. The man tries to hide his identity but Dante is able to place him.
After some words are exchanged Virgil guides Dante on to the next pouch.

The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri Inferno (Introduction-Canto X)

   Dante Alighieri writing of the his divine comedy, the Inferno, is infused with distinct ideologies that help the reader to understand the magnitude of Dante's academia. As stated by Allen Mandelbaum,"He is seeking those gusts that will most convince us of the credibility of his journey, the accuracy of his record, the trustworthiness of his memory. 'Mistaking not' (Inf. II, 6) he would offer us evidence as undeniable as that of a historian, Livy, of whom we learn, twenty-six cantos later (Inf, XXVIII, 12), that he, too, 'does not err.' / Finally, he would convince us that his are the supreme fictions; and he would do so without contradicting his own claims to truth, because fictio for Dante does not mean 'pure invention' or 'fantastic creation' but --as Gioacchino Paprelli has shown -- a poetic composition, constructed with the concourse of rhetoric and music, or -- we should say -- prosody. And in the construction of such fictions, he is not only a strenuous emulator and intrepid pirate, but a competitor and self-announced victor" (Intro. ix-x).
     A line taken from the Inferno states, "io sol uno" which means "I myself alone," this is the first instance to have a "...triple repetition of an 'I' that we have in Western writing" (Intro. xi) Dante had a fascination with learned writers that made strides in writing previous to this lifetime. In order to incorporate these techniques, Dante found ways to "talk" with these men while he narrates his personal literary piece. The two prominent writers are Virgil and Aquinas. Dante uses every human sense in order to create a world that is tangible in his writing. His best use of description is shown with his dominance of the idea of sight. In the Inferno, it has been estimated Dante uses sixty-seven instance to describe sight. The form of a journey used in Homer's, Odyssey and Virgil's, Aeneid helped to give Dante the basic structure of his travels. Fear is a driving force for the human mind. Dante uses this fear in order to create an intense epic that will open the mind's of his readers.

This link is a good reference that can be used throughout Dante's blog post.

     The opening lines begin with the introduction of our narrator. It is never directly said but most people assume this illusive character is Dante himself. In a shadowed forest Dante meets three beast, a leopard, a lion, and a she-wolf, who block his journey towards the top of a hill that represents all that is good. After becoming discouraged Dante turns back and runs into Virgil. Dante is elated to meet his idol and ask for help to continue on his travels. Virgil agrees to help him through Hell and Purgatory in order to reach the ultimate destination of Heaven. As the duo approaches the gates of Hell, Dante finds himself questioning whether he is worthy to venture on through these mysterious lands. Virgil tells Dante of three woman in Heaven who have looked kindly upon the narrator and wish to see him through safely. Little does Dante know that this good light that shines upon him will be his ticket through man obstacles in his travels. With these words of confidence the men continue on their path. They come to the Gate of Hell. The inscription on the gate is as follows:

"THROUGH ME THE WAY INTO THE SUFFERING CITY,

THROUGH ME THE WAY TO THE ETERNAL PAIN,

THROUGH ME THE WAY THAT RUNS AMONG THE LOST.

JUSTICE URGED ON MY HIGH ARTIFICER;

MY MAKER WAS DIVINE AUTHORITY,

THE HIGHEST WISDOM, AND THE PRIMAL LOVE.

BEFORE ME NOTHING BUT ETERNAL THINGS

WERE MADE, AND I ENDURE ETERNALLY.

ABANDON EVERY HOPE, WHO ENTER HERE" (III,1-9).

As they enter the gates Dante hears horrible cries from the souls of the dead. Virgil explains that these people are placed in the Ante-Inferno. They reside here because they never choose good or evil during their lifetime, therefore neither Hell nor Heaven can take them. They are naked and are constantly bit and stung by horseflies and wasp. The blood and tears that fall from their bodies are eaten by worms. The men approach Acheron, which is a body of water that borders Hell. Charon pilots the only vessel that crosses this water; he notices that Dante is still a living soul and tries to scare him away. Virgil reprimands Charon and tells him that woman from Heaven have ordained this journey. The captain says no more. Virgil explains to Dante that Charon's initial reaction to him is a good omen because that means our narrator is still viewed as being moral and virtuous. An earthquake disrupts their conversation and then wind/fire arise which frighten Dante into fainting.
     Dante is awakened by a clap of thunder and finds himself in the First Circle of Hell, also known as Limbo. This place is reserved for those who were either never baptized or who lived before Christianity. Virgil is one of these people and resides here, when he is not helping travelers. Dante learns that the only people who made it out of Limbo were taken by Jesus Christ when he visited Hell after being crucified. He took with him Abraham, Abel, Noah, Moses, David, and Rachel to name a few. Virgil then introduces Dante to other important men that are stuck in limbo with himself. These men include Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan. The men move toward a castle that houses many more souls forced to reside in Limbo.
      Virgil and Dante then depart and travel onward to the second circle of Hell. This section is smaller then the first but upholds a greater punishment for all who reside there. Minos stands at the entrance and judges the sins of all who enter. However many times his tale wraps "...around himself, that marks the sinner's level" (V, 12). Minos tries to scare Dante because he recognizes that he is a living soul. Virgil steps in, once again, and tells Minos that it is ordained by the Heavens that this passage takes place. The two travel into the circle and are met by hurricane force winds. Dante learns that this area of Hell is reserved for those who have sinned out of lust. Cleopatra and Helen are two of the many sinners Virgil points out.

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      Francesca, another lustful soul, is allowed to tell Dante her story. She was married but longed for her brother-in-law. While reading the Arthurian romance of Lancelot and Guinevere the two lovers could not hold back their lustful wants. In turn they were caught and executed. Dante ends up fainting, again, at the end of Francesca's story. As seen previously Dante awakens in the next circle of Hell. This circle torments its sinners with a filthy rain that constantly falls on them. Cerberus, a three-headed dog, inhabits the circle and is only satisfied after Virgil throws some earth at the beast. Dante and Virgil then continue past the monster and visit the gluttonous souls. Ciacco, recognizes Dante and calls out to the living man. He tells Dante how he predicts Florence will perish. Dante asks about some men from his hometown of Florence who were seen as being good. Ciacco relays to Dante that these men are in a deeper part of Hell.
     As Virgil and Dante leave this circle, Dante asks his guide how punishments will change after Judgement Day. Virgil explains that these punishments will not become worse or better but that they will be perfected. The two journey onward into the fourth circle where they meet the demon, Plutus. He tries to scare away Dante but Virgil quiets the demon with simple words. In this circle two groups push weights in opposite directions until they run into each other. After turning around and pushing weights the other direction they continue until they run into each other again. This cycle is constant and this punishment is reserved for those men who squandered money. Many of them were in religious forms of leadership. Virgil then explains the influence Fortune has on those that are in this circle.
     The men travel on into the fifth circle of Hell. They come across Styx, a muddy swamp. The souls that inhabit this circle are seen covered in mud and strike at each other with every part of their bodies. There are also souls that are not visible to the naked eye, that were sullen when in the sun. Now they "...are bitter in the blackened mud"(VII, 124).
     The men venture further into hell and while still in the fifth circle come across a tower. They meet Phlegyas, who is persuaded to help them across the Styx by Virgil. On their journey across Dante

http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/
cas/ashp/dore_inferno8_argenti.htm

recognizes one of the souls damned in the mud. Filippo Argenti tries to make peace with Dante, but the narrator wants nothing to do with the man. As the soul is drawn back into the mud Dante is happy to hear his pitiful cries. The duo continues, after arriving on the other bank, toward Dis, known as lower Hell. Those guarding the gate are appalled that a living soul has traveled this far and they refuse to let Dante enter. Virgil goes to the guards in hopes of convincing them through his divine message. He comes back defeated, but is still determined to enter into Dis. As they wait Dante becomes worried because Virgil is anxious. To pass the time Dante ask about the amount of people who make this journey. Virgil explains that not many have; however, this is his second time. As they wait, three Furies come upon the men. They are wretched creatures and call for Medusa to come and turn the living into stone. Virgil warns Dante to cover his eyes so as to avoid the Gorgon. He not only has Dante cover his eyes but, Virgil places his hands on the living's eyes in order to be cautious. Medusa arrives and goes about her business but retreats after a messenger from Heaven enters. Dante recognizes the figure and bows down in order to show respect for the being. The messenger opens the gate with ease and then journeys onward in a different direction.
      Virgil and Dante enter into the sixth circle of Hell, also known as Dis. Virgil explains that the tombs that they pass by are reserved for the arch-heretics and those who followed them. The tombs are heated to different degrees thus differentiating the amount of torment. The two continue walking and Virgil explains that this particular area of Dis is reserved for those who did not believe anything happened to your soul after death. Dante is startled by a soul that begins to speak to him and knows about his basic origins based on his accent. After trying to hide behind the poet, Virgil introduces Farinata to Dante. The men begin to speak of home and learn that they were in opposing parties. Another soul interrupts the conversation and ask why his son did not make the trip with Dante. Dante's response is simple and is misinterpreted by the dead man who thinks his son no longer lives. Farinata and Dante continue their discussion and Dante soon learns that Farinata can see future events but not present ones. This fascinates Dante and he ask different questions of the soul about his beloved Florence. After being satisfied by some of the answers Dante and Virgil journey on toward their next destination. Canto X ends with Dante relaying information about the valley they approach that exudes a pungent odor.

Note: Allen Mandelbaum's translation was used for reference. 

Arthurian Romance-The Knight with the Lion

     Chrétien de Troyes completed the whole piece of  The Knight with the Lion. In turn the poem does not have a prologue. The Knight with the Lion has intertextual references that are linked to The Knight of the Cart and it is agreed upon that these two works were created around the same time. This literary technique helps to cement the story and make it more legitimized. The connection between the two stories help to create a larger world that the read is able to explore more in depth. Yvain takes on the conflict of two separate forms of love. Instead of following his bride, which was a staple form of story telling in this time, he searches for love through his pursuit of glory. Chrétien was able to tell this story in a manner that made the audience think about the status quo.
     King Arthur holds his court at the time of Pentecost. After the meal Calogrenant, a knight, tells a tale of disgrace. Sir Kay mocks the knight at first because the story teller was the only knight to stand in the queen's presence. This being the same seneschal that was seen in The Knight of the Cart, his attitude ridicules the ideas of Calogrenant, which is a stark contrast to his character in Lancelot. Calogrenant continues with his tale.
     He was riding in Broceliande forest looking for adventure when he came across a treacherous path. He rode along this path for a day when he came upon a fortress. The owner gladly hosted the knight for the night. the next morning Calogrenant left his host and come across some bulls fighting amongst themselves. He kept his distance and crossed paths with a ugly peasant. The stranger alarms the peasant, who stands up upon a tree trunk.

http://www.les-mondes-de-gwenn.fr/2011/
05/23/le-recit-merveilleux-du-chevalier-calogrenant/

Calogrenant ask the peasant who he is and if he knows of any adventure suited for a knight. The peasant tells him of a mysterious spring that when its water is cast upon a mystical rock a storm will rise up like nothing he has ever seen. The knight rides away and finds the mysterious tree. Out of curiosity, he sprinkles water on the stone and a great storm rises up. Calogrenant states that he was fearful for his life and was blinded by the lightning strikes. After the storm had ceased a loud knight came along the path and challenged Calogrenant. The fight was short lived and Calogrenant was quickly overthrown. He was able to travel back home but his shame was so great that he held onto this story until this very moment.
      Yvain is insulted that his cousin, Calogrenant, had not informed him of this embarrassing story and he plans on going forth in order to avenge his cousins honor. Kay makes fun of Yvain's boisterous words and is silenced by the queen. King Arthur then enters the room and is retold Calogrenant's story by the queen. Arthur then swears that he will go to see this magical tree and spring. He offers to take any knight who wishes to accompany him. Yvain is upset by this oath, as he sees that it is his duty to fulfill this adventure alone. He takes off immediately in order to gain some distance between the rest of the men.
     Yvain follows the steps of Calogrenant to the letter. He meets the powerful knight at the beautiful tree and engages in a battle. Yvain gets the upper-hand by striking the knight with a hard blow to his helmet that opens up his head. Knowing that he must escape the unnamed knight rides off with Yvain close behind. They enter into the knight's castle where Yvain is thrown off his horse. He is warned by a maiden that he is in grave danger because he served a mortal blow to the knight. She promises to assist him because he was kind to her at Arthur's court. She gives him a ring that makes him invisible to the naked eye. He stays in one spot and is able to observe the people's mad search for the murderer.
      The lady of the house is the most beautiful woman Yvain has ever seen. Only after the funeral processional leaves the room while he is hiding, does he look out the window at this woman who was in grief. The girl who helped Yvain, leaves the knight and joins the funeral in order to shy away from suspicion. Yvain is conflicted because he loves the woman who hates him. Chrétien personifies love as a woman taking over the very being of Yvain. His description helps the audience understand the magnitude of this love that Yvain is feeling. Yvain watches out the window as everyone leaves the grave except the lady of the castle. He has a war within himself about how to handle this love and if it is possible to not obey its motives. Shame and Love keep him imprisoned in the castle. Kay and the other knights would not believe that he had slain the mighty knight without any evidence

http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.
com/bios/yvain.html

and he would be shamed, but Love of the Lady holds him fast in the walls. For his only wish is to see the woman even if it means imprisonment. The servant girl who helped Yvain has always spoken openly with the lady of the house and through her cunning words she is able to convince the woman that the knight is truly worthy of her presence. Yvain is cleaned up by the servant who revitalizes his image. She takes the knight to her lady and he asks for forgiveness. Through the witty words that had been previously spoken by the servant, the Lady of the house willingly forgives the knight and ask him what imprisons him. He confesses his love for the lady and she gladly takes him to the towns people who are overjoyed by the fact that they have a new protector. The two are married.
     King Arthur and his men make their way to the mysterious spring. Kay makes fun of Yvain because he is nowhere to be found. Yvain goes to the spring in order to "protect" the land from the King of Britain and Kay gets the chance to fight the "strange" knight. He is thrown off his horse and in order to delineate from any further battle Yvain reveals himself to his comrades. Yvain relays all that has happened and asks Arthur and his men to join him at the castle. The towns people are overjoyed and celebrate. Gawain is among Arthur's men and is enamored by Lunete, the girl who hid Yvain. She tells Gawain of all that happened and how she convinced her lady to take Yvain "...as her husband" (325). They stay there a week and as Arthur prepares to leave his people they try to convince Yvain to journey back with them. Sir Gawain challenges Yvain's idea of love and tries to convince the knight that love of glory and honor is greater then that of a woman. Chrétien is able to bring up the conflict between armes (honor) and amors (love). Yvain goes to his wife and ask to take leave with Gawain in order to fulfill his love of glory and honor in his young age. She grants him this but states that he must return within a years time in order to keep on good terms with her. It amazes me how often the measure of time that is used is a single year. With the influence of Gawain, Yvain stays away longer then the time allotted. He is then faced with one of the lady's damsels who curses the man who went back on his word. The damsel demands the ring that Yvain's wife had gifted him before his travels began. She snatches up the ring and leaves.
     Yvain goes mad at the thought of losing his love. A hermit sees Yvain, who has become a wild-man, and helps him by feeding him bread. After sometime the Lady of Norison finds Yvain naked under a tree. She sends one of her damsels with a special ointment to cure the knight's maddened mind. He becomes alert again and follows the damsel to the lady's castle. There Yvain is nurtured back to full health. Luckily when Yvain is fully healed he is able to help defend the town from the Count Alier. Yvain abilities as a knight prove to benefit the town and his success helps to build up the courage of the other warriors. Eventually Yvain corners Count Alier who surrenders to any terms that Lady Norison lays out. After taking the prisoner to the Lady, Yvain leaves amidst the pleas of the townspeople.

http://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/theme/yvain

     He travels for some time until he hears "...a very loud and anguished cry" (337). The knight comes upon a lion being attacked by a dragon. Not knowing if the lion would attack after he was freed, Yvain slays the dragon in order to help the suffering animal. Instead of attacking its savior the lion bows down in submission. From that day forward the lion would follow Yvain out of servitude. The beast would hunt for food that Yvain would then cook and at night the lion protected his master and his master's horse. This cycle continued for two weeks until Yvain came upon the spring and stone that had started his whole adventure. He fainted at the sight and his loving pet believed him to have died. Before the lion could do anything rash Yvain woke up and stopped the animals attempt at suicide.
     Yvain laments about his lost love and how he should die. A prisoner hears his words and calls down to him. Lunete, the woman who saved Yvain when he was trapped in the castle, ends up being this prisoner. She tells Yvain of Kay's evil scheme to be rid of her, because the queen trusts Lunete's word more then Sir Kay's. The seneschal uses the queen's distrust of Yvain as a way to catapult Lunete into prison. Yvain ask why Gawain did not help this "...damsel in distress" (341). Lunete relays information that relates this story back to The Knight of the Cart. Sir Kay lost the queen, so Sir Gawain went out to find Meleagant, her captor, therefore he is not to be found in court. Lunete is scheduled to be burned or hanged the next day. Yvain vows to return in order to fight for Lunete's freedom and finds lodging at a obscure stronghold.
     All the homes and huts had been taken in side the massive walls and while the people greet Yvain with joy they continually fall into grief. Yvain's curiosity gets the best of him and he is forced to ask the lord of the town what bothers the townspeople. The lord tells of Harpin of the Mountain, a giant, who had been terrorizing the city and forces everyone into the castle walls. The giant demands that the lord's daughter be given to him. The six sons of the lord had tried to defend the city but to no avail. Yvain asks the leader about Sir Gawain but is again told a shortened version of The Knight of the Cart. Our humble knight finally agrees

http://www.timelessmyths.com/arthurian/tales.html#YvainFountain

to take on the giant himself. The lady of the house and the beautiful daughter join the men. Throughout this story Yvain continually focuses on the idea that things are to happen only if it is God's will. In Lancelot, the main character was driven by the wishes of the woman he surrounded himself with, Yvain's adventure changes depend on women's needs to some extent but are also supplemented by God's will. Yvain tells the lord that he is willing to fight the giant if he is at the castle before a certain hour because he had already given his oath to Lunete.
     The next day Yvain was torn between staying or leaving because the hour had come. After much pleading from the lady and her daughter, Yvain is still torn. Thankfully the giant shows up to demand the girl. Yvain kills the giant with the help of his lion. He then prepares to leave to his next task and ask the lord to get word to Sir Gawain of his success.
     As he enters the chapel, Lunete is tied up and about ready to be put into the fire. Yvain charges in yelling, "Release her! Release the girl, you wicked people! It's not right for her to be burned at the stake or in a furnace, for she has done no wrong" (349). The knight defeats the men who swore against Lunete, with the help of his lion. After the duel, Yvain leaves with his lion only after his love grants him her good-will. He departs from the chapel with only Lunete knowing his true identity. Yvain arrives back at his previous lodging where he is gladly taken in to start the healing process. He stays with these people until he is healthy and strong.
     Lord of Blackthorn dies and his eldest daughter takes control over all the land. His youngest daughter contest this use of power and threatens to seek help at Arthur's court. The oldest, determined to reach the court before her sister, sets out at once to seek Arthur. She is able to reach the court and discuss with Sir Gawain their terms. He agrees to help the power hungry sister and when faced with the youngest sisters request for help he refuses to go back on his word. News of "The Knight with the Lion" surfaces at Arthur's court and the youngest sister becomes determined to find him in order to defend her inheritance. She travels for days and becomes ill. She is given lodging and while she rest a servant is sent out to track down Yvain. The servant comes across the lord that was aided by Yvain when he killed Harpin of the Mountain. The lord directs her to Lunete who gives her directions that take he directly to Yvain. After catching up to Yvain the servant explains the situation and the knight graciously takes on the younger sister's cause. As the two travel with the lion at their side they come across the town of Dire Adventure. While the trio moves through the town many townspeople warn them to turn back and not to take lodging with their king. Yvain, with an innocent heart, does not listen to these words and proceeds to the building. Once at the gates, he climbs the wall to look into the meadow. He is greeted with the sight of maidens dressed in poverty working their hands to the bone in order to please their master. Yvain goes into the meadow in order to learn how these maidens ended up in such a wretched place.
     He learns the castle is owned by two men who were made from a woman and a demon. These men captured a king and in order to gain his freedom the king promised to give these terrible men 30 maidens every year. The only way for the maidens to be set free is if a knight is able to defeat the two demon-men. Step in Yvain. He promises to meet these men and if it is in God's plan he will defeat the masters of the house. Yvain walks around the castle and encounters none good or bad. He finally walks in on a daughter reading a romance to her father and mother. The knight is greeted with blessings and is given every honor that is to be bestowed upon a visitor by the daughter. After a night of good food and rest Yvain awakens and prepares to leave. The king informs him that in order to gain his freedom he must defeat the two demon-men. Before the battle begins Yvain is forced to place his pet lion in a holding room because he is only allowed to face his enemy alone. As the battle rages on the lion can sense Yvain's need for help and tunnels under the door in order to attack one of the men. While the second man tries to save his comrade the knight sees a weakness in his armor and takes this opportunity to strike him down. The first demon-man that was attacked by the lion asks Yvain to call off his lion and admits defeat.
    The townspeople are ecstatic about the upset and gather around Yvain, stating that he is now required to marry the princess. Yvain, remembering his duty to Blackthorn's daughter, refuses the marriage and in-turn upsets the king. The king goes to the extreme of demanding he marry his daughter or Yvain would become their prisoner. The knight is persistent and tries to compromise by stating he will return at the appointed time to take the girl's hand. This does not sit well with the king and he tells Yvain that he can leave and it does not matter if he returns.
      Yvain takes the maidens he had seen in the meadow and leads them out of the town and on their way home. The knight then rides off in the opposite direction behind the servant girl who originally had requested his help. The trio makes it to the lodging where the youngest sister had just recently recovered from her illness and their was much rejoicing. They left the next day and made it to Arthur's camp. That night they stayed in lodging outside the camp in order to hide their identity.

http://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot
/text/han-the-legend-of-yvain

      The next day the oldest sister tries to speed things along in order to guarantee her the fullest inheritance, but the king feels sorry for the younger sister and sees through the lies of the oldest. He forces the court to wait out the full time allotted and as he decrees this The Knight with the Lion and the younger sister walk into the court. The younger sister tries to gain her rightful inheritance without bloodshed but the controlling, older sibling refuses to hear her words. The knights prepare for battle and sadly do not know the identity of their enemy. Chrétien goes into great detail about the love and hatred the men have towards each other. Their love has always been and only because they lack the knowledge of who their opponent truly is do they harbor hatred towards one another. The battle is an equal match and continues on throughout the afternoon. The men finally stop fighting when night is upon them.
     Thankfully Yvain and Sir Gawain begin to discuss the battle and soon learn of each others' names. The two knights embrace and both admit to being defeated. The king and barons are rather confused as to what this rejoicing means. The knights explain what had happened and the king is placed in an odd position. In order to scare the oldest sister into given away some of the inheritance, the king threatens to announce Gawain's defeat. This would be a mortal blow to the reputation of the oldest sister therefore, she willingly gives away part of the land. As Gawain and Yvain have their armor removed the lion runs through the court towards his master. The sight of this animal frightens many but they are reassured by Yvain's words of the lion's gentility. The two knights are taken to the best physician in the land and are healed of their wounds.
     Yvain then feels pressure to seek out his love. His plan is to make such a storm from the spring water and stone that his lady is forced to reconcile with the knight. He leaves with only his lion as company and begins to create a tremendous storm. Lunete is called to council her Lady in order to stop the terrible weather. She is able to tell her Lady of a knight who is well-known amongst the land but is stricken by grief and sorrow. Lunete believes if the knight were to be reconciled with her mistress he would be willing to defend the town. The Lady agrees to help this infamous knight, only knowing him as The Knight  the Lion. Lunete sets out to find Yvain and comes upon him sitting underneath a pine. She tells him of the lady's oath and travels with him back to the fortress. Lunete, Yvain, and his pet lion travel into the city and head to the noble lady. After learning of his true identity the woman feels tricked but is forced to reconcile with the man.
The poem ends with:

"The Chrétien brings to a close his romance of the Knight with the Lion. I've not heard any more about it, and you'll never hear anything more unless one adds lies to it."

Note: William W. Kibler's translation was used for reference.

Arthurian Romance - The Knight of the Cart

      It has been accepted that this story, written by Chrétien de Troyes, was forced upon the writer by Marie de Champagne. A main reason for this acknowledgment hinges on the fact that he blatantly states this inconvenience in the opening prologue.  Chrétien's ideology of love also helps to concrete his resistance to this demand. The Knight of the Cart, also referred to as simply Lancelot, has a more contemporary view of love especially outside of marriage. Chrétien believed highly in the ideals of the church and saw any romance/love outside of marriage as adultery. The story is known as a "a popular Celtic abduction story, or aithed" (10). Chrétien was able to allude to the "tragic love tale of Piramus and Thisbe" in order to legitimize his knowledge of classic material.

http://www.geocities.ws/jessica12_80/plot.html

       At Camelot, King Arthur holds his court. It is quite extravagant including everything you would expect of a king. King Arthur is greeted by a mysterious knight who comes into court dressed for battle. The knight, later known as Meleagant, addresses the king and tells him of all Arthur's loyal subjects he has imprisoned. He does not intend to give them back but tells the leader of an ultimatum. "Sir, if at your court there is even one knight in whom you have faith enough to dare entrust the queen to accompany her into these woods where I am going, I give my oath that I will await him there and will deliver all the prisoners who are captive in my land -- if he is able to win the queen from me and bring her back to you" (208). Another knight, only known as Kay, hears this challenge and immediately goes to the king and tells him of his departure from the court. The king is sad and tries to stop Kay, but the knight is firm in his resolve. King Arthur finally asks the queen to convince Kay to stay and she approaches the knight while he sits with his comrades. The knight is determined to travel onward. He only agrees to stay after the queen refuses to rise and she promises to grant his mysterious request. After proceeding to the king, Kay request to fulfill the desired challenge from the illusive knight. With a heavy heart Arthur agrees. Kay's request is seen as being "...proud, rash, and foolhardy" (209). The queen and Kay prepare to leave.
      Nobody attempts to follow the duo until Sir Gawain publicly tells King Arthur that someone must follow in order to learn of the queen's final whereabouts. He also is concerned about how prepared Kay is for the duel. After the king agrees to ride with Sir Gawain many of the townspeople volunteer to help. Gawain goes on his own path and meets Kay's horse. The animal is riderless and many of the parts to the saddle are destroyed/stained with blood. Gawain continues riding on into the forest and he meets a name-less knight, later on known to be Lancelot, who is riding a labored horse. The stranger greets Gawain and asks to either loan or be gifted one of the extra horse accompanying the pursuer. Gawain gives the knight whatever horse he chooses, but his choice is hastily made and the horse dies soon into his travels. Lancelot is then forced to ask a dwarf for information of his lost queen. The dwarf refuse to give him any knowledge of the queen but in turn states that if he were to travel in his cart he would divulge information. Carts are a social symbol during this time period. These modes of travel were scarce and therefore reserved for criminals. If one was seen on a cart they would lose all of their feudal rights as well as never be allowed in court again. Lancelot hesitates for a moment, but ultimately decides his honor is worth less then the queens life. This decision helps to shape the rest 

http://www.sjsu.edu/people/cynthia.rostankowski/courses/hum1b/

of the piece. It gives the literature its title, as well as a basis for Lancelot's character. Sir Gawain comes upon the unlikely duo and is appalled at the thought of riding with the dwarf. Instead, in order to learn of queen's location, he follows the cart. They go into town where Lancelot is ridiculed and mocked. They continue on until they reach the dwarf's lodging. Sir Gawain is greeted warmly by an attractive girl who then asks what Lancelot did to deserve passage in the cart. This question will continually be a point of interest for many onlookers throughout the literature. The dwarf silently leaves the room and the two men take off their armor, fill their bodies with nourishment, and prepare for bed.
     The next morning Lancelot sees his queen through a window as she proceeds in a funeral march on horseback by her captor. Sir Gawain is able to stop Lancelot from doing anything rash and the two prepare to follow the funeral procession. They ride until mid-morning and meet a girl who is willing to tell them the location of the queen. She warns the men that the road will be dangerous and anyone who rides into the land will suffer many tribulations. She requests a promise from each man in exchange for the information and the men agree to these terms. She then explains the two passages that lead to Meleagant, the prince of Gorre. She warns the men that no one has ever returned from the land with out the kings consent.  The two ways include "The Underwater Bridge" and "The Sword Bridge". The first one is a bridge that is exactly in the middle of the water with the same amount of water above as below. The second has never been crossed by a man because "it is like a trenchant sword" (215). Lancelot asks which way Gawain will attempt. After picking The Underwater Bridge Lancelot chooses the other passage. As the men ride away the girl reminds the travelers of their promises to help at a time of her choosing. The two men hear and  vow to keep good on their word.
     At this point in the story Chrétien has our hero encounter people, predominantly women and knights, who challenge his character and loyalty to his love, the queen, and his ability to continue in his quest for her safety.  It amazes me how reliant men, especially knights, were on the women of the time. Lancelot continually is influenced by the wishes of the women who surround him but ends up finding ways to  better his reputation. As the story moves forward Lancelot comes upon a church

http://ladaria.livejournal.com/461874.html

 and the knight enters to pray. On his exit he meets an elderly monk who takes him to the cemetery. Lancelot sees the graves reserved for Gawain and Yvain. Chrétien is able to use intertextuality to give more relevancy to his stories and create a broader literary world. The pair comes across a tomb that helps to foreshadow the success of Lancelot. The knight is able to lift the massive stone away from a tomb that was prophesied only to be opened by the person who would emancipate the  prisoners of Meleagant's land. The monk is amazed and tries to learn of the identity of the mysterious knight, but Lancelot is able to hold on to his identity. Chrétien continues with Lancelot's encounters with different strangers. At one point Lancelot is forced to decided between Generosity and Compassion when faced with a duel. He finds a loophole in his logic and is able to satisfy both areas of his compassion. This occurrence helps the reader to understand the eternal war that goes on in our hero. The humble knight crosses the Sword Bridge with minimal injury.
     King Bademagu, ruler of Gorre, watches his passage with Meleagant, his son. The king is known for being the exact opposite of his son in all of his mannerisms. He tells his son to welcome this brave knight and to be hospitable to the warrior. Meleagant refuses to give in and hand over his "prize", Queen Guinevere. Bademagu tells his son that he will receive no help from him in order to defeat the knight and the only man who Lancelot should fear is Meleagant. The king rides down to talk with Lancelot and tries to convince him to let his wounds heal before their duel. Lancelot is determined to follow through with his journey quickly and only commits to wait until the next day for the impending battle. People from all over the land hear of the upcoming fight and flock to the castle.
     The next morning the battle begins in a frivolous manner and prayers are said for both men. As the battle starts and progresses it is apparent Lancelot is losing. This may be in part because of his injured hands. Queen Guinevere realizes her influence and learns the name of the knight who is

http://www.literaryramblings.com/1000-books-in-10
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 fighting for her safety. She shouts out to Lancelot and distracts him. He becomes entranced by the queen and she helps him maneuver himself in order to see the her while also fighting Meleagant head on. Lancelot starts to take the upper-hand and Bademagu asks the queen to sway Lancelot so that he will not kill Meleagant. She agrees because of his kindness throughout this whole ordeal. Lancelot immediately listens to the queens words and Meleagant takes advantage of the situation and attacks Lancelot even though the knight had stopped pursuing him. Bademagu stops his son and orders his men to hold him back. The king refuses to let his son use his arrogance as an excuse for his actions. In order to appease both parties the two knights agree to another duel this time in King Arthur's court in less then a year. Queen Guinevere will be freed and given to Lancelot until the next duel where her hand will be up for grabs, again. Lancelot is then taken to the queen who is angered with the knight. He lets the queen leave with a heavy heart.
      Our knight is then taken to Kay, who is ashamed to talk with Lancelot. His shame stems from Lancelot being able to complete the task he failed. The seneschal, Kay, informs Lancelot of the drastic difference between King Bademagu and Prince Meleagant. Lancelot then takes his leave and prepares to search for Gawain. He takes with him the volunteer prisoners he freed and Lancelot's legacy is born with his partial defeat over Meleagant. He now has opened the borders of Gorre and allowed people to freely travel in and out of the land.
      As Lancelot reaches the border he is captured by the people of Gorre and held captive. Word is taken to the King of the events but he is also told that Lancelot was killed. The king is outraged. Queen Guinevere learns of Lancelot's "death" and becomes distraught. She stops eating and talks about killing herself. Rumors fly back to the captors and Lancelot is told that the queen did kill herself. This melodramatic scene alludes to Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. The two lovers are hysterical over news about the other's so-called deaths. Thankfully his captors stop Lancelot's suicide attempt and as the captors get close to the city both parties are informed that everyone is still alive.
     After arriving in Gorre the king is elated to see Lancelot and places judgement on the native captors. The queen is happy to hear of her lovers return and losses all preconceived judgments about the knight. The two are given time to talk and Lancelot finally asks the queen why she was so cold. She responds,"Were you not shamed by the cart, and frightened of it? By delaying for two steps you showed your great unwillingness to climb into it. That, to tell the truth, is why I didn't wish to see you or speak with you" (262). Lancelot apologizes for his actions and the two plan for their next rendezvous which must be kept secret. That night Lancelot sneaks away in order to see Guinevere at her window. The iron bars placed in the window create dilemma for the lovers. Lancelot is able to move

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the bars but only after cutting his fingers open. The knight is so moved by love he does not notice the injury and falls into the arms of his queen. Chrétien describes their encounter in simple terms but in the end states that, "...I shall let it remain a secret for ever, since it should not be written of: the most delightful and choicest pleasure is that which is hinted at, but never told" (265).
      The next morning Lancelot leaves saddened that he must part from his lover. During the night his injured hand stains Guinevere's bed with blood. After getting through the window and straightening the bars he bows down to the queen as if to an altar. Meleagant enters the room and sees blood on both Guinevere's and Kay's sheets and assumes that Kay had taken advantage of the queen. As an audience we know this not to be true and that the blood on Kay's bed came from his personal wounds. The prince calls for his father and states his accusation. The king is appalled by the thought of a knight that would sleep with his queen and Kay tries to deny the action but the obvious "evidence" makes his arguments void. Meleagant refuses to withdraw his accusation and Kay calls for a duel to clear his name. Guinevere summons Lancelot, who comes to defend Kay. The duel is a replication of the previous scuffle between these two knights. Guinevere is asked by Bademagu to stop the fight and from the words that fall off her lips, Lancelot obeys. Meleagant is forced to stop his attacks and is appeased by the thought that his battle in King Arthur's court will create more shame towards Lancelot. Our knight then rides off to seek Sir Gawain.
      After traveling out of the city Lancelot is tricked by a dwarf who kidnaps the hero. His men are concerned about what to do next and they go to find Sir Gawain at the Underwater Bridge. After rescuing the man they tell him all that has happened in his absence. Gawain has the men ride back to Gorre in order to gain information from Bademagu. The king sends out search parties in order to find the lost knight, but everyone comes up short. A messenger brings a mysterious letter to the king who has the it read allowed in order to avoid confusion. In the letter Lancelot tells the people he has returned to Arthur's court and that they should journey back as well. Joy is seen throughout Gorre.
      After journeying back to King Arthur's land Gawain, Kay, and Queen Guinevere are joyfully greeted. The people congratulate Gawain for rescuing the queen but Gawain refuses to accept honor. He realizes he has been deceived and King Arthur begins to grief the loss of Lancelot until he sees then queen. The single ladies and maidens of the land organize a tournament in order to help them find husbands. They get the king to agree that the queen will be present at their event. The queen also agrees to this and word of her presence travels. While being imprisoned in Gorre, Lancelot hears of this event. The Lady of his captor's house sees that he refuses any aid and asks that he confide in her. He tells her that he wishes to attend the tournament and swears that he will return when the event has passed. The Lady is scared of the Prince of Gorre and hesitates to appease this request. After some bartering Lancelot is let go, clothed in the home owner's armor.

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     Our knight chooses to lodge in a cramped space in the town of Wurst. He does this in order to shy away from unwanted attention. Chrétien goes into detail about the massive amount of knights who are attending the tournament; the main reasoning behind this large influx of attendance is centered on Queen Guinevere's scheduled appearance.
      The next day at the tournament the games begin swiftly. Lancelot, disguised at "the red knight", fights so well that people begin to take notice. The queen, with her suspicions, summons a girl to tell Lancelot to fight poorly. After hearing Guinevere's request Lancelot obeys his love and begins to act cowardly. The crowd, who at first were amazed, mock our knight. At the end of the day people are still perplexed by the abrupt change in the mysterious knight and call him a coward. The next morning spectators and competitors alike flock to the tournament. Many of the knights are described but when Lancelot does not show up people assume he is to ashamed to show his face.
      Guinevere has the same girl find her beloved knight and informs him to again do poorly in the games. His response is taken back to the queen who knows without a doubt that it is Lancelot. The girl messenger then returns to our knight with another message from the queen. This time the knight is instructed to do his best,
Lancelot obliges the request and amazes the crowd. The ladies and maidens who had hosted the tournament were distraught by the fact that they all wanted to marry the mysterious knight. They refused to believe that any other man would hold up to his ability and they all went home husband-less. Our knight quickly left the tournament in order to remain mysterious and returned to the prison in order to keep his word.
     After returning back to his prison Lancelot is placed in a tower that was built, as ordered, by Meleagant in order to dissipate any possibility of our knight's escape. Meleagant then returns to Arthur's court ready for his scheduled battle with Lancelot. With no sign of the celebrated knight, Gawain offers to duel the prince after the court is given a year to search for their hero. Meleagant agrees to these terms and he returns to his father's court. Upon arrival he boast about his success in Arthur's court. Instead of praising his son, King Bademagu, reprimands his arrogant words and chastises his character. Meleagant is outraged. His father states that the only way Lancelot would not follow through with his word would be if he were imprisoned or dead. Meleagant's sisters hears this statement and resolves to find Lancelot. She rides on her mule for days on end and finally finds the tower that Meleagant constructed. She frees Lancelot and takes him to a private castle where she takes care of the knight. Our knight becomes healthier and stronger and eventually leaves his savior.
     The following day Lancelot returns to court, Meleagant appears as well in order to duel Gawain. The prince goes to the court asking if Lancelot had been found and Gawain tells the villain of the sad

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news that the knight is still nowhere to be found. As Gawain prepares himself for battle Lancelot enters the court. The people are ecstatic to see their beloved knight especially the queen who forces herself to keep her distance. He tells Arthur of the torture that Meleagant put him through and refuses to let Gawain fight for him. Meleagant is stunned to see his prisoner in the court and he concludes that he will fight as best he can until he is overtaken. King Arthur moves the duel to a heath that was known as "...the fairest from there to Ireland" (293). Both knights become enraged throughout the duel but in the end Meleagant is killed. No one shows remorse for the death of the prince and they help Lancelot with his armor.

The story ends with:
"My lords, if I were to tell any more, I would be going beyond my  matter. Therefore I draw to a close: the romance is completely finished at this point. The clerk Godefroy de Lagny has put the final touches on The Knight of the Cart; let no one blame him for completing Chrétien's work, since he did it with the approval of Chrétien, who began it. He worked on the story from the point at which Lancelot was walled into the tower until the end. He has done only this much. He wishes to add nothing further, nor to omit anything, for this would harm the story."

This last paragraph helps the reader to understand the extent to which the story was edited.

Note: William W. Kibler's translation was used for reference. 

The Song of Roland (Laisses 177 - Laisses 291)

        The French make it to the battle field to find that all their comrades have died fighting. Many of the knights weep for the men lost and some faint at the sight of all the bodies. Naimon notices the pagan's, still in sight, fleeing the battle and he recommends that the French race after their enemy in order to seek revenge. Charlemagne agrees with the knight and leads a group of men onward to battle. He makes sure to leave some soldiers behind in order to protect the bodies of their lost brothers.
        King Charles notices the sun starting to set as the warriors travel onward to take vengeance on the pagans. He stops and prays to God in order to ask him to hold the sun in place. God sends an angel to tell Charlemagne that he can continue traveling without having to worry about the night approaching and the men journey ahead. They purse the pagans until their only escape is the Ebro river. Their enemy continues into the water praying to their god for help. The book consistently gives reason to the idea that the only true God is the one that Charlemagne worships. The author could be considered bias but the writing at this time period was continually Christian based. Marsilion's men end up drowning in the river. At this sight Charlemagne bows down and gives thanks to God. He then tells his men that they will make camp there, in order to give themselves and their horses rest. All the men sleep out of exhaustion and grief for their losses. The King is sent a few dreams, from God through Saint Gabriel, that make him distraught.
         King Marsilion flees to Spain and is so beaten that he faints. The Queen and towns people are so upset about the loss they go to the temple of their god and destroy his shrine.
       Jump back to the beginning of Charlemagne's seven year attack on Spain. From the start King Marsilion does everything in his power to disrupt the advances of the French. He sends out letters in order to gain allies in this fight. The Babylon leader only gives a reply after King Marsilion's last attempt of ridding Spain of Charlemagne. In order to help the pagans Baligant, the Babylon leader, sends warships to help in the resistance against the Christians. After arriving at Saragossa Baligant boast of how he will defeat Charlemagne. He sends for King Marsilion to join him in the battle that he will wage. The messengers arrive to a troubled city. The towns people, and the leadership do not believe in the ability of their gods to help them in any way. King Marsilion laments how he was only wounded in battle and was not able to die a hero's death. He tells the messengers that they can find Charlemagne by the Ebro river and if Baligant is willing to protect Spain from the Christians he will be given the land. The messengers return to Baligant and relay all that has happened recently between the Franks and the pagans. The Babylonian leader is elated to

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The-Second-Coming-of-House-Karling/page3

hear that King Charles is so close to his men. He immediately rides to Saragossa in order to talk with King Marsilion but only stays a short while in order to catch Charlemagne off guard by the Ebro river. Before leaving Baligant swears victory for the pagans.
       King Charles and his men ride back to the site of the battle and mourn over their losses. The leader finds his nephew's, Roland's, body. He griefs and laments over the life lost and final absolves to continually grieve over the lost warrior. All the bodies except that of the three leaders are then gathered and laid to rest. The grieving knights give a proper burial in order to guarantee them blessings and honors. Roland, Oliver, and the Archbishop's bodies are all wrapped up in fine linen in order to be carted back to their homeland.
        The Babylonian messengers ride up and announce the battle to come. The French prepare for battle and gather into different specified ranks. Overall Charlemagne has ten divisions in total. He gets down from his horse and prays to God to avenge his nephew's death if it is his will. He makes reference to many bible stories in his prayer as examples of other moments in history when God granted miracles. The French then continue to prepare for battle.
       The pagan messengers then join back up with their comrades. They inform Baligant that Charlemagne's men will never abandon their leader. The pagan's then prepare for battle, as well. The author continues to discuss how great of a man Baligant would be if he were only a Christian. This understanding centers on the focus of Christian ideals being spread throughout the land as the only correct form of thinking. Malpramis, Baligant's son, asks his father for the first blow of the battle. The leader is proud to give this honor to his son and promises him land if he should live to see another day. The author foreshadows the demise of Malpramis when he explains that the warrior will never be honored with the land. The pagans also form into divisions. Overall they have three sets of ten divisions equaling to thirty legions.
        As the two sides go into their final preparations, prayers are said to either sides being. Boast and threats are exchanged between the two armies. Both sides know the battle to come will be a hard fight. They have seen the abilities of the opposing side and understand what is to come.
      The battle begins with battle cries and the first blows are attributed to the Franks. Soon after, strikes are seen throughout the battlefield. Many men are wounded or killed from both armies. Throughout the battle Baligant and Charlemagne are heard inspiring the fighting spirits of their men. As the battle rages on it is apparent that the pagans are losing many of their good warriors. Baligant ends up losing both his son and his brother. After he hears news of this loss he begins to start questioning the existence of his god and possibly the truth of Charlemagne's God. The battle continues and through the slaughter of many warriors the two Kings come upon each others presence. Only through the recognition of each others voices do they realize their proximity. The two Kings know that this battle will end in death for one of them. Baligant demands that Charlemagne admit to killing his son and become his vassal in order to "right the wrong". King Charles refuses to grant peace or love to a pagan and tries to convert the Babylonian leader. At a stale mate with words, they progress into physical strikes.
     Baligant gets the first fatal blow and strikes Charlemagne in the head. This hit almost kills the French leader but, because it is not the will of God that Charlemagne dies, Saint Gabriel is sent down to push him onward. The leader hears the angel's voice and loses all fear. He immediately counters the blow with his own strike to Baligant's head which proves fatal. The Babylonian leader lays dead on the ground while

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Charlemagne mounts his horse. The pagans soon learn of their leaders death and try to flee the battle. King Charles urges his men to follow the retreating enemy and few pagans leave the battlefield alive. They pursue the pagans all the way back to Saragossa. King Marsilion and the Queen soon learn of the defeat and give in to the French army. Hearing this news, King Marsilion physically dies while grieving. Charlemagne takes control of the city and he lets his men rest their for the night. The next morning  he orders his men to destroy all of the pagan idols and he has all of the townspeople baptized or killed, if they refuse. The Queen is taken back to France as a captive in order to be converted through love.
        As they travel back to France, Charlemagne leaves Roland's olifant with gold and pagan coins in Bordeaux on the altar of the Saint Sevrin church. He lays to rest Roland, Oliver, and the Archbishop at the Saint-Romain church. They continue onward until they arrive at Aix. Charlemagne calls together his judges in order to begin Ganelon's trial.
       Aude, who was promised to marry Roland upon his return, ask the king of her love's whereabouts. The king is grieved to tell her the sad news of Roland's death. After hearing of his demise, Aude dies. King Charles only thinks the girl has fainted and tries to revive her. He final understands the situation and has her buried the next day with many honors. 
       Ganelon is stationed before the palace and tied to a stake. He is beaten with many objects as he waits for his trial. At the trial, Ganelon tries to argue that he was working under the influence of revenge and not treason. The heart of the trial is not based off the action but the motive. Ganelon fully admits to plotting with the pagans but his motives were out of vengeance not treason. The judges discuss amongst themselves and all but Tierri conclude that nothing will bring back Roland and Ganelon is still willing to serve Charlemagne with love and loyalty. During the counsel Pinabel tells Ganelon he will "...give him the lie with this steel sword" (274.3791). After hearing the verdict Charlemagne calls all the judges traitors. Tierri then calls attention to the fact that Ganelon may not be a traitor to Roland but he is to Charlemagne. He cements this judgement with his sword and Pinabel challenges him. Not only does he place a challenge Pinabel also puts up the lives of his kinsmen for the judgement of innocence.
      The men prepare for the duel and are absolved of their sins. The room is set and the fight begins. Early on in the skirmish both men try to convince the other to surrender. Neither is willing to give up their claim and the battle is fated that one must die. Pinabel wounds Tierri but it is not his day to die so God saves the warrior. Tierri then strikes Pinabel with a fatal blow and Ganelon's judgement is made. To live up to Pinabel's challenge, his kinsmen are scheduled to be hanged. The loyalty of Tierri is recognized by Charlemagne and

http://nobility.org/2011/09/08/nobility-of
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he bestows much praise to the warrior. Ganelon's then has each limb strung up to a war horse and is ripped apart. By being a traitor he deserved a gruesome death that led his soul to damnation.
        The pagan Queen is then baptized and given the Christian name, Juliana. As Charlemagne lays down to rest he hears Saint Gabriel call to him. The angel tells the King he must ride to the land of Bire. King Vivien had been besieged by the pagans and the Christians were crying out for Charlemagne.

Thus ends the story.